Difference of the psychology of hallucinations, as dependent on soundness of mind or insanity - Incitements to madness - Introduction of physiology into history - The philosophy of history contrary to this doctrine - Development of sensorial impressions in the brain; the change which they undergo - Hallucinations differ according to the character of individuals - A few words on the nature and seat of hallucinations - Influence of the nervous and sanguine systems - Of the nature of ideas - Division of ideas into spiritual and sensual - The second alone furnish materials for hallucinations - Influence of attention, comparison, imagination, memory, and association, on the mechanism of hallucination - Corporeity of spiritual ideas caused by the abuse of abstraction - Apparitions of Cassius, Brutus, and Julian - Hallucinations do not alone borrow their materials from actual ideas; they are also reminiscences of old and erroneous impressions - The origin of false ideas may be found in a forgetfulness of the knowledge of God and of self - In many cases, hallucination is almost a normal state, which explains why so many celebrated men have been attacked by it, without becoming insane - Historical hallucinations show themselves first in persons collectively; secondly individually - Examples of Loyola, Luther, Joan of Arc, and G. Fox - Each of these characters may be looked on as the personification of an epoch, a useful idea - Their hallucinations do not, in general, offer any analogy to those of the present time, which are more or less combined with madness - In every celebrated man there is a spiritual character (history), and a mortal character (biography) - Many hallucinations are those of the age, not of the individual - A line of division ought to be established between the apparitions of Holy Writ and the hallucinations of profane history, and even those of many Christians - Recapitulation.

A preliminary study has initiated us into a knowledge of the moral and physical, social and individual causes, which concur in favoring the development of hallucinations; but it is necessary to penetrate deeper into the nature of this phenomenon; to analyze, as much as possible, its mode of formation, and its constituent elements, and to indicate its general and particular characteristics; such will be the object of this secondary study, which we will call psychological

The contest which we have maintained to establish the coexistence of hallucinations with reason, will meet with stronger and more obstinate opposition on this new ground. In fact, the explanation of this phenomenon must necessarily offer very distinct differences, according to whether it is viewed in the light of madness or of sound reason. In the first case, hallucinations will be the consequence of deranged health; in the second, it will be a physiological state, resulting from a higher degree of attention and enthusiasm; the auxiliary, and not the provocative of the idea.

In order that the suit now brought before science may be properly judged, we should first point out the reasons advanced by our adversaries, and afterwards develop our principles and the facts on which they rest; by this method, the whole matter will be under observation, and judgment can be pronounced when the case has been heard.

The celebrated M. Lelut, who may justly be considered as head of the school which has introduced physiology into history, has explained his doctrine in the following words: "Let us look at Socrates, who not only imagines that he receives influences and divine inspirations, but who believes that, by virtue of this privilege, he possesses a similar influence over his friends and disciples, and almost over strangers, even when at a distance from them, and to whom, in the exercise of this faculty, stone-walls offer no impediment. One cannot, in fact, see or hear anything more extravagant or more characteristic of insanity; and hallucinists, who, to my knowledge, pretend to impart or to receive physical influences from a distance by aid of magnetism and free-masonry, express themselves in like manner with Socrates, and are not, in this view, greater madmen than he was. In modern times, the insanity of Tasso, Pascal, Rousseau, Swammerdam, Vanhelmont, and Swedenborg, are now almost universally acknowledged by men who blended the study of morbid psychology with that of history and philosophy."*

Leuret, in his Fragment Psychologiques, and M. Calmeil, in his work,* have upheld the same doctrine, which is likewise that of M. Baillarger.

* Lelut, Du Demon de Socrate, specimen of the application of psychological science to that of history, enlarged from Memoires sur les Hallucinations et la Folie, 1836, p. 121.

M. Al. Maury, who has supported the opinions of M. Lelut, by his deep researches and vast erudition, also observes that notice must be taken of the effect which the temperament and health of individuals has on civil society.

According to this scholar, events are almost always accomplished by isolated or single wills and individual acts, and consequently, historical facts may often fall under the empire of physiological laws.†

The philosophy of history is entirely at variance with this proposition. It shows, in fact, that individuals never lead their epoch; the proof of which is, that if the ideas which they defend have not attained maturity, or if they precede their age, the originators almost always perish on the scaffold, in torture, in misery, or in obscurity; they are fortunate if they are not stigmatized with the ban of madness. As to those favorites of fortune and renown, who are happy enough to live at the right time, success attends them so long as they respond to the general need; but if, dazzled by their triumphs, they attempt to substitute their own wills for those of others, and turn the current of ideas to their own profit, they are almost invariably precipitated from the exalted station in which circumstances have placed them. Man, notwithstanding his pride, is but an instrument in the hands of Providence, and Bossuet has well said: "Man moves, but it is God who leads him."