Boers (Dutch, boer, a peasant), the Dutch colonists of southern Africa. The first Dutch settlements there were established in the beginning of the 17th century, and grew rapidly while the Netherlands were a ruling maritime power; but during the 18th century the adventurous spirit of the Dutch died away, and as the influx of fresh elements from Europe diminished, the original settlers of Cape Colony developed a peculiar character of their own, singularly blending the steadiness and deliberation of the Dutch with recklessness and energy. The Boers could never be reconciled to the transfer of the colony to Great Britain in 1814, and maintained a secret but constant opposition against all efforts to Anglicize the colony. The lenient policy which the British adopted toward the Caffres, and finally the emancipation of the negro slaves (1833)), which threatened to overthrow the entire domestic system of the Boers, and the retrocession by government of the neutral eastern frontier district to the Caf-tres in 1835, determined them to emigrate and to establish in the interior an independent community.

As early as 18:55 the first hands, led by Triechard of Albany, crossed the Orange river, and settled, one part near the Zoutpansberg (Salt-pan mountain) and another part, led by Orich, near Delagoabay, where they were soon destroyed by malignant coast fevers. A third band, which followed in August, 1835, was attacked by the Matabelee Caffres, and obliged to fall back on the Modder river. Having been reinforced by other emigrants, they again advanced under the leadership of Gerrit Ma-ritz, repulsed the Matabelees, Jan. 17,1836, and finally settled in the Orange river district, where they organized a patriarchal commonwealth under Pieter Retief. Meanwhile a small British colony had been established at Port Natal by Capt. Gardner, who abandoned it as hopeless in 1836. The remaining colonists called on the Boers to unite with them, and in 1837 Retief with his followers crossed the Quath-lamba mountain; but at an interview with the chief of the Zooloo Caffres he and his companions were treacherously slain.

The remnant of his followers turned in a southerly direction, founded the settlement of Pictcr-Maritzburg, and under the lead of Pretorius defeated the Zooloos, Feb. 1, 1838. In 1840 Gov. Napier by proclamation denied their right to form an independent community, even beyond the boundaries of the British possessions. In 1842 a small British force was landed, which compelled the Boers to retire from the coast and to accept the amnesty offered them in exchange for their recognizing the British sovereignty. Many of them, unwilling to submit, recrosscd the mountains and settled in the Vaal region. The British. having possession of Natal, at once began to disturb the traditionary rights of the Boers. The consequence was. that again a large portion of them migrated northward bevond the Klipp river, then the northern boundary of Natal, where for three years, unprotected by the government, they struggled against the Zooloos. When at length, in 1845, they had overcome the resistance of the Caffres by their unaided efforts, the colonial government immediately proclaimed the Buffalo river as the northern boundary of Natal, thus once more subjecting the Boers to British rule. After some resistance the Boers determined to emigrate to the Vaal country.

Smith, the governor general, attempted to retain them by promising full redress of their grievances, but it was too late. Similar events followed beyond the Quathlamba. The bands, led by Pretorius, had settled in the vicinity of the Griquas and Be-chuanas; but on Feb. 3, 1848, the colonial government annexed by proclamation the Orange river sovereignty to the Cape Colony, under the pretext of protecting the savage Griquas against encroachments on their territory. The Boers took to arms, and on June 17 Pretorius drove the British garrison from Bloemfontein. But Gov. Smith crossed the Orange river with a large force, and on Aug. 29 defeated the Boers near Boomplaats, after a long and obstinate resistance. Pretorius and the majority of his followers, unwilling to submit to the British, migrated to the north, beyond the Vaal river, and there founded the Transvaal Republic. Some 12,000 Boers remained in the Orange river country, but, although subdued by force, they preserved their hostile feeling against their conquerors. The attempt to introduce convicts into the colony was so energetically resisted that the government was obliged to desist.

The Caffre wars, begun in 1850, made it evident that united action by the Europeans was necessary for safety, and in 1853 the relinquishment of the Orange river country to the Boers was resolved upon by the government. On Feb. 23, 1854, this act was consummated, and the Orange River Republic was recognized as an independent state by England, since which time the two republics of Orange River and Transvaal have rapidly gained strength and power. - The Orange River Republic, or Orange Free State, is bounded S. by the Orange river, W. and N. by the Vaal river, E. by the Basuto territory and the Quathlamba or Drakenberg mountains, and extends from lat. 27° to 31° S.; area, 48,049 sq. m.; pop. 50,000, of whom 15,000 are white. The country is a high table land, its average elevation above the level of the ocean being about 5,000 feet, excellent for grazing purposes, and abundantly watered. The Boers, being principally cattle breeders, have not developed the agricultural resources of the country to any considerable extent. Coal and iron have been found in many places, and gold was discovered in 1854 on the Caledon river. The climate is dry, temperate, and salubrious.

Excellent roads communicate with Cape Colony and Port Natal. The republic is divided into five districts, viz., Fauresmith, Caledon or Smithfield, Bloemfontein, Winburg, and Harrysmith or Vaal River district. The principal towns are Bloemfontein, the scat of government; Smithfield, on the Orange river; Winburg, the former capital; and Harrysmith, the key of the Port Natal road, and the centre of the principal agricultural district. The political organization is democratic. An elective president is the chief magistrate, but the congress (volksrad) has all legislative powers. On the same principle the districts are governed by landdrosts (governors) and heemraden. In May, 1870, diamonds were found on the banks of the Vaal river, near the missionary station of Pniel in the district of Winburg, and also north of the river in territory claimed by the Transvaal Republic. A large population was at once attracted to these diamond tields, and although the region was claimed by both republics, the miners organized a government of their own.

Their principal settlement is Du Toit's Pan, said to contain in 1872 a population of 16,000. By a proclamation promulgated in Capetown in October, 1871, the British government annexed the diamond fields to Cape Colony, in spite of the protest of the Free State authorities. The territory was divided into the districts of Klipdrift, Pniel, and Griqua Town. - The Transvaal Republic, between lat. 22° 30' and 28° S., is bounded E. by the Quathlam-ba mountains, S. by the Vaal river, W. by the Hart river, and N. W. and N. by the Limpopo river; area, 77,964 sq. m.; pop. 140,000. The physiognomy of the country is nearly the same, viz., an elevated table land, intersected by parallel mountain ranges in the east. The soil, consisting of sand, clay, and loam, is more fertile than that of the Orange river country. Its rolling prairies are covered with excellent tall grass, interspersed with shrubs and magnificent trees. In the mountainous region there are primeval forests. The climate is similar to that of southern Europe, and all European and many tropical vegetables are raised without difficulty. The rivers, of which the country has a good number, are not navigable, and communication with the seashore is difficult.

Grasshoppers are a constant plague to the farmer, while flies and other venomous insects often destroy hundreds of cattle. The form of government is a pure democracy. A volksrad, elected by ballot (every white man of 21 years being entitled to vote), meets four times every year at different places. This body unites all legislative and executive powers. It appoints for each district or church parish military and civil officers, viz., commanders-in-chief, commanders, field cornets (colonels, majors, and captains), landdrosts, and heemraden. The landdrosts have administrative as well as judicial powers; they and their messengers are the only salaried officers. Every white man is entitled to a homestead of 3,000 acres from the public lands. Slavery, properly speaking, has no legal existence, but the Boers keep a number of semi-civilized Hottentots as laborers and herdsmen. The principal settlements are Potchefstrom, containing 1,500 inhabitants, Rustenburg, Orich-stadt, and Zoutpansberg. These towns are laid out very regularly, and are well supplied with water. - The Boers are represented by those who have sojourned among them as plain, honest, straightforward, pious, and hospitable, but distrustful of foreigners, especially Englishmen. They live in the most patriarchal way on their plaats or cattle farms, in comfortable and spacious, though unpretending dwellings.

Besides cattle breeding, their favorite occupation is hunting. Inns are unknown, and no Boer ever denies hospitality to a stranger.