Botany (Gr. , a plant or vegetable), the division of natural science which treats of plants. The history and bibliography of the science will be treated in this article; for a general account of plants and their organism, see Plant. As a plant in its typical form is composed of organs, as roots, stem, leaves, etc, which have each a part to perform in the life of the individual, a study of vegetable physiology must be the foundation of botanical knowledge. This important division of botany treats of these organs in their most intimate structure, a study only possible by the improvements in the microscope and in organic chemistry. Vegetable anatomy dissects the plant, opens the structure of the root, stem, bark, and leaves, or studies the special organs (organography), and the various forms which these organs assume for different functions (morphology), as where the leaf becomes a petal, a stamen, or a carpel, yet preserving all the while its identity.

The botanist also examines the functions of all the organs, the order and mode of their development, and finally those derangements of plant life which are followed, as in the animal, by death of a part or of the whole (nosology). The vast number and variety of plants existing on the globe require a knowledge of some system of classification, and systematic botany supplies the want with a rigorous method by which all plants wherever found may at once be placed in a definite position in the order adopted. As plants are not scattered haphazard over the earth, botanical geography must be studied, and with this plant history, using the fossil remains of plants of former geological ages for the purpose. Botany may then be applied to the wants of every-day life, as in agriculture, horticulture, or medical botany. Animals often exhibit a marvellous instinct in selecting medicinal herbs, and observation of their habits has often, even in the present time, led to valuable discoveries. - The fragmentary history we have of the study of nature by the ancients indicates a much greater knowledge than is recorded; for instance, in the well known paradox of the Greek philosophers that plants are only inverted animals - a statement that certainly required an extensive knowledge of the phenomena of vegetation.

The collected descriptions of known plants, however, were very limited, the Hebrew Scriptures containing names of about 70 species which can be identified, besides some others. Hippocrates of Cos (about 400 B. C.) described briefly about 200 medicinal plants; Theophrastus, the pupil of Aristotle, describes about 400; Dioscorides (about A. D. 100) treats of about 600 species, of which fewer than 150 have been recognized. Pliny the Elder, in his Historia Naturalis, devotes 16 books to botany, describing almost 1,000 plants; but from his unscientific descriptions many cannot now be identified. The Arabian travellers added about 200 oriental plants to the 1,200 known before the 9th century. Jean Bauhin (born in 1541) wrote a universal history of plants, describing more than 5,000 species, illustrated by 3,577figures; and later his brother endeavored to arrange the 6,000 plants then known. Linnaeus described in his first edition of the Systema Natures 7,300 species, and in the second 8,800; and at his death in 1778, 11,800 were known.

The influence of his example on his many pupils rapidly increased the number of known plants, until in the time of Jussieu 20,000 had been described; and the number at present known is at least 100,000. With so vast a collection the botanist would be overwhelmed had he not some methodical arrangement; and as the history of the various devices invented by botanists to order and catalogue their rapidly increasing stores is an important part of botany, it may be considered, after a brief sketch of the labors and discoveries of the early botanists. - The ancients recorded many botanical observations which do not seem to have been productive of results; although Herodotus (book i., 193) mentions the fact that in Baby-Ionia the flowers of the male palm were tied to those that bear fruit " in order that the fly entering the date may ripen it, lest otherwise the fruit fall before maturity: for the males have flies in the fruit, just like wild fig trees." The seeds of palms were still undiscovered. Aristotle wrote two books on plants, known only from Latin and Arabic versions. Theophras-tus taught that there was no philosophical dis-tinction between trees, shrubs, and plants.

He noticed the difference between palm wood and that of trees with concentric rings, a point used as the first distinction in the clas-sification of flowering plants only within the last 60 years. The parenchyma and woody fibre were also clearly distinguished by this remarkable botanist. Musa and Euphorbus, Roman physicians, published botanical observations, and Pliny gives some interesting descriptions. For 1,700 years all botanical investigation was at a standstill. The Arabians, it is true, travelled and collected plants; Wahab and Abu Seid went to China and described the tcha or tea plant; Masudi, Abulfeda, Batuta, and Averroes all made their contributions, and have generally been honored by having plants named after them. After the fall of Constantinople (1453), and the revival of letters consequent upon that event and the invention of printing, botanists were not satisfied with commentaries on Aristotle and Theophrastus, and made many new investigations. In Germany, Otto Brunfels first published good woodcuts of living plants in 1530; for those in the work incorrectly attributed to AEmilius Macer (1480), and even in that of Pietro de' Crescenzi, are all of inferior value. Leonhard Fuchs attempted to arrange and illustrate the known plants of his time.

Rauwolf travelled in the western part of Asia and collected many new plants. Prospero Alpini, Venetian consul at Cairo, and Melchior Guilandinus, explored Egypt. The discovery of the West Indies in 1492, and the doubling of the Cape of Good Hope five years later, opened new and rich botanical storehouses. Conrad Gesner of Zurich (1516-'65) established genera from the flower and fruit, and his attempt at classification was published by J. Camerarius in 1586, in a synopsis of the commentary of P. A. Matthioli, physician to the emperor of Germany. Charles de l'Ecluse (Clusius), director of the imperial garden of Vienna, described accurately and elegantly many new plants, and was the best botanist up to his time (1526-1609). Lobelius of Lille (1538-1616) was the first to distinguish mono-cotyledonous from dicotyledonous plants. Andreas Caesalpinus of Florence, physician to Pope Clement VIII., established (1583) a system of classification from fructification, divided trees according to the direction of the germ, made the distinction of sex in dioecious plants clearer by giving masculine names to staminate, feminine ones to pistillate individuals, and, what proved of more permanent benefit, analyzed several of the important organs of vegetation.

Among the botanists of this period were Jacobus Theodorus Tabernsemontanus, who reproduced the figures of more than 3,000 species which had been already described; his nephew, Joachim Jungermann; Fabricius Colonna, who first published delicate copperplates of plants; Ad. Zaluskianski, a Bohemian, who wrote on the sexes of plants and described the floral organs. Jean Bauhin of Basel, a pupil of Fuchs, laid out the garden of the duke of Wurtemberg at Montbeliard, and wrote a universal history of plants, but described them less accurately than Caesalpinus. His brother Gaspar tried to distinguish each species by a brief description of its characteristics, and grouped all species into genera; and his system, with that of Caesalpinus, was used by botanists for some years. War then put an end to botanical as to all other scientific progress in Europe; and although Marcgraf explored and described the vegetable riches of Brazil, little advance was made until Leeuwenhoeck with the microscope (1632-1723) commenced the examination of the hitherto invisible structure of vegetables, and thus gave a new impulse to botany, which resulted in investigations pursued with great accuracy by Nehemiah Grew (born about 1628), and by the Italian Marcello Mal-pighi (born in 1628). These two naturalists laid the foundation of vegetable physiology as a science by carefully examining all the cells and tissues of plants and seeds; and, although in the great number of their discoveries they were both often misled, many of their investigations were of great importance.

Several of the French academicians made further discoveries: Charles Perrault on the movement of the sap; Renaulme on the leaves as organs of transpiration, absorption, and nutrition; Dodart on the direction of growth; Lahire on the growth of trees. Van Helmont and John Woodward made experiments on the nutrition of plants. In 1676 Thomas Millington and Bobart discovered the fertilizing power of anthers, which Grew confirmed, establishing the sexes of plants. In 1694 R. J. Camerarius demonstrated this discovery, and three years later Boccone experimented with palms, acting on the suggestion of Herodotus. All these doubtless led Linnaeus to his sexual classification. From the physiological botany which had at the time of Linnaeus become so prominent, naturalists turned for a while to geographical botany, and many of the pupils of the great Swede were sent out as collectors. Solander explored Lapland, Archangel, etc, and circumnavigated the globe with Cook and Banks; Peter Kalm explored North America; Peter Lofling, Portugal, Spain, and New Spain; Hasselquist, Asia; Forskal, Arabia; Ternstrom, the East Indies; Osbeck, China; Solander, Surinam; others, various parts of Europe. Tournefort (1656-1708) travelled in southern Europe and western Asia; L. Feuillee travelled in Asia in 1690 and in America in 1705; Charles Plumier observed and collected plants in the Antilles, and A. Fr. Frezier in Spanish America. The Burmanns, father and son, described almost 1,500 new species from the East Indies, and Commelyn and his son described Malabar plants.

Other distinguished botanical travellers are: Adanson, on the Senegal; Thunberg, successor of Linnaeus, at the Cape of Good Hope; Kampfer, in Japan; Ruiz and Pavon, in Chili and Peru; Mutis, in equatorial America; Jac-quin, in South America; Swartz, in the Antilles; Aublet, in Guiana; Joao Loureiro, in Cochin China; Commerson, almost all over the globe; Roxburgh, in Bengal; Desfontaines, in Algeria; Masson, at the Cape of Good Hope; Ledru and Reidel, around the globe; Labillar-diere and Ventenat, in the Pacific islands; Du Petit-Thouars, in Madagascar; A. Michaux, in North America; Joseph Jussieu (1704-1779), among the Andes and the sources of the Plata; Alex, von Humboldt and Aime Bonpland, in South America; Robert Brown, with the painter Bauer, in Australia; Ehrenberg, in Egypt, Abyssinia, Dongola, and Arabia (in which countries he collected 47,000 specimens); Lesson, in the Pacific islands; Baron Hugel, there and in the East Indies; Russegger, in Syria, Kordofan, and littoral Arabia; J. D. Hooker, in India and the Southern ocean; Leschenault de la Tour, in India; Griffith, in India; Victor Jacquemont, in eastern India; Siebold, in Japan; Ed. Ruppel and Schimper, in Nubia and Abyssinia; Otto, in the Cordilleras, on the Orinoco, and in North America; Aug. de St.-Hilaire, Spix, Martius, Moritz, and G. Gardner, in Brazil and Guiana; Schomburgk, in Guiana and Louisiana; Nuttall, in the United States; Tweedie, on the pampas in La Plata; Jo. Frazer and T. Drummond, in the United States; Bertero and Cl. Gay, in Chili; Allan Cunningham, in New Zealand and New Holland; Chamisso, in the Pacific and around the globe; Meyen, around the globe, which Charles Gaudichaud circumnavigated three times with Freycinet. Pallas, Baer, Schrenck, Ruprecht, Somelieu, Parrot, and Ehrenberg explored Russia. Among those who have made expeditions for botanical collections in the present generation are Vogel and G. Mann in Africa, Wright in Cuba and Texas, Brewer on the Pacific coast, Fendler in the S. W. United States, Horace Mann and Brigham in the Hawaiian islands, Fortune in Japan and eastern Asia, Remy in the Hawaiian islands, and Seemann in the Feejee islands. - Classification of Plants. Even before the collections of modern travellers had so immensely increased the number of known plants, it was found necessary to adopt some order or arrangement by which the recorded description of a species might be so placed that succeeding botanists could know what had been described.

The classification adopted by The-ophrastus into pot herbs and forest trees, cone plants, water plants, and parasites, and the more medicinal one of Dioscorides into aroma-tics, gum-bearing plants, eatable vegetables, and corn herbs, answered the purpose when botanists and described plants were few; but for the last century and a half botanists have been striving with the advance of their science to improve the classification of the rapidly increasing store of plants they had to study. Rivinus in 1690 invented a system depending on the formation of the corolla; Hamel in 1693, as Csesalpinus had done before him, on the fruit alone. John Ray in 1703 published an amended natural system, separating dicotyledons and monocotyledons, but his work was little noticed. In 1720 Magnol arranged his system on the variations of the calyx and corolla. In 1735 Linnaeus based his on the variations of the stamens and pistils, and this artificial system was at once adopted everywhere, and for many years was taught and used in all botanical classes in Europe and America. He devised the binomial system of nomenclature, denoting each plant by a generic and specific name. Although now entirely out of use, the Linnaean system is interesting as the best artificial one yet invented.

Its outline is as follows:

From the 1st to the 11th class, which has 12 stamens, the number of the class coincides with that of the stamens. The 12th class, icosandria (20 stamens), differs from the 13th, polyandria (many stamens), not by the number, but by the insertion of the filaments, which is on the inner side of the calyx in the former and on the receptacle in the latter. Didynamia has 4, tetradynamia 6 stamens, 2 of which are shorter in each class. In the monadelphia the stamens have the filaments more or less united; in the diadelphia they are in two groups; in the polyadelphia, in several. In syngenesia the anthers (rarely the filaments also) are united. In gynandria the anthers are borne on the pistil, either sessile or with short filaments. Moncecia have the stamens in one flower, the pistil in another, but both on the same plant; while in dicecia the two forms of flower are on distinct plants, and in polygamia the pistillate and staminate flowers are on the same or different plants in the same species. These classes are divided into orders as follows: the first 13 classes according to the number of their distinct stigmata, as mono-, di-, etc, gynia; the 14th by the seed (when covered, angiosperma; when naked, gymnosper-ma); the 15th by the form of the fruit, sili-quosa (podded), and siliculosa (with silicles); the 16th, 17th, 18th, and 20th by the absolute number of their stamens; the 21st and 22d by the absolute number of the stamens and their adherence (monadelphia, syngenesia, gynan-dria); the 23d by the distribution of the hermaphrodite or unisexual flowers (mon-, di-, triozcid). The 24th class, cryptogamia (secret marriage), has four orders, filices (ferns), musci (mosses), algce (seaweeds), and fungi (mushrooms). The 19th, syngenesia, has five orders: flowers all fertile, hermaphrodite (polygamia, equalis); flowers radiate, disk with hermaphrodite florets, ray with pistillate (poly-superflua); disk with fertile hermaphrodite florets, ray with barren pistillate (polyfrustra-nea); disk with barren hermaphrodite florets, ray with fertile pistillate (polynecessaria); each floret with its own calyx besides the common perianth (polysegregata), and also separated flowers, as the lobelia (monogamia). This artificial system is, then, founded on the differences, not on the similarities of plants, and does not tend to impart a knowledge of the structure of a plant beyond its stamens and pistils.

Linnaeus himself felt its deficiencies, and tried to work out what is called a natural system, which he declared to be the primum et ultimum in botanicis desideratum. - Bernard de Jussieu, in his catalogues of the gardens of the Trianon, adopted an arrangement of plants according to their natural affinities; and as he never published his method, it was left for his nephew Antoine Laurent (1748-1836) to give to the world the first natural system in his Genera Plantarum secundum Ordines Natu-rales disposita (Paris, 1789), a work containing descriptions of almost 20,000 species, and celebrated as a monument of wonderful sagacity and profound research, as well as for the eloquence and precision of its style. Various modifications of Jussieu\s system have been adopted by succeeding botanists. Among them three methods deserve a more special mention, as the works in which they have been adopted are in constant use. De Candolle's Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Ve-getabilis, a description of all known species of plants, commenced in 1824 and now nearly completed, adopts the descending series, as it is called; that is, those plants which are considered most complete in their organization are first described, and the series ends in the lower cryptogams.

The Prodromus is so much used by all working botanists that a brief synopsis of the arrangement therein followed may be given. The primary divisions are vasculares and cellulares. Vasculares or cotyledonce are furnished with cellular tissue and vessels, and their embryo has one or more cotyledons. This includes: I. Exogenas or dicotyledons, in which the vessels are arranged in concentric layers, the youngest outside, and the embryo has opposite or verticillate cotyledons; II. Endogence or monocotyledons, in which the vessels are arranged in bundles, the youngest being in the middle of the trunk, while the embryo has a solitary or alternate cotyledons. The exogens are divided into dichlamydeaz, with calyx and corolla distinct, and monochlamydem, where the calyx and corolla form only one perianth. The dichlamyds are again divided into the thalamiflorm, in which the petals are distinct, inverted on the receptacle; the calyci-florce, in which the petals are free or more or less united, always perigynous or inserted on the calyx; and the corolliflorce, in which the petals are united into a hypogynous corolla, or not attached to the calyx. Cellulares or aco-tyledonce are composed of cellular tissue only, and have no proper vessels, while the embryo has no cotyledons.

This division includes the foliacem or plants which have leaf-like expansions and known sexes; and the aphyllce, or plants which have neither leaf-like expansions nor (as was supposed when the method was published) sexes. John Lindley, in his " Vegetable Kingdom " (1846; 3d ed., 1853), adopts the ascending series. The number of orders is 303, and his classes are as follows:

Flowerless Plants

Cryptogams. I. Thallogens. Stem and leaves indistinguishable. II. Acrogens. Stem and leaves distinguishable. Flowering Plants - Phanerogams. III. Rhizogens. Fructification springing from a thallus. Fructification proceeding from a stem, † Wood of stem youngest in the centre; cotyledon single. IV. Endogens. Leaves parallel-veined, permanent; wood of stem always confused. V. Dictyogens. Leaves net-veined, deciduous; wood of stem, when perennial, arranged in a circle with a central pith. ‡ Wood of stem youngest on the circumference, always concentric; cotyledons two or more. VI. Gymnogens. Seeds quite naked. VII. Exogens. Seeds enclosed in seed vessels.

The alliances proposed by Lindley ar,e as follows: Algales, ex. seaweeds; fungales, ex. mushrooms; lichenales, ex. lichens; muscales, ex. urn mosses; lycopodales, ex. club mosses; filicales, ex. ferns; glumales, ex. grasses; amies, ex. arads; palmales, ex. palms; hydrales, ex. naiads; narcissales, ex. amaryllis; amoma-les, ex. maranta; orchidales, ex. orchis; xyri-dales, ex. spiderwort; juncales, ex. bulrush; liliales, ex. lily; alismales, ex. alisma; amen-tales, ex. willow; urticales, ex.-nettle; euphor-biales, ex. spurge; quercales, ex. oak; garry-ales, ex. garrya; menispermales, ex. moonseed; cucurbitales, ex. melon; papayales, ex. papaw; violales, ex. violet; cistales, ex. rock rose; mal-vales, ex. mallow; sapindales, ex. soapwort; guttiferales, ex. clusia; nymphales, ex. water lily; ranales, ex. buttercup; berberales, ex. berberry; ericales, ex. heath; rutales, ex. orange; geraniales, ex. cranesbill; silenales, ex. pink; chenopodales, ex. amaranth; piper-ales, ex. pepper; ficoidales, ex. mesembryanthe-mum; daphnales, ex. laurel; rosales, ex. apple; saxifragales, ex. saxifrage; rhamnales, ex. buckthorn; gentianales, ex. gentian; solanales, ex. potato; cortusales, ex. primrose; echiales, ex. bugloss; bignoniales, ex. trumpet-creeper; campanales, ex. aster; myrtales, ex. pomegranate; cactales, ex. cactus; grossales, ex. currant; cinchonales, ex. honeysuckle; umbel-lales, ex. carrot; asarales, ex. birthwort. - Ste-phan Endlicher published Genera Plantarum secundum Ordines Naturales disposita (Vienna, 1836-'40), the most important systematic work since A. L. de Jussieu's of 1789. His classes answer to Lindley's alliances.

We subjoin a summary of his method, from his Conspectus diagnosticum:

Two regions contain all plants: 1. Thallophyta (Gr. , to pullulate, to green, grow, bloom, sprout), the thallus being either a leafy branched tuft or frond, or a flat-lobed mass of green matter upon the ground, a bed of fibres; and 2. Cormophyta (Gr. , Lat. corpus, truncus, stem, stalk), the cormus being the lecus of Du-Petit Thouars, plateau of De Candolle, bulbotuber of Ker, and bnlbus solidus of others; in short, a stem, whether subterranean or super-terranean. The thallophyta (having no opposition of stem and root, no spiral vessels nor sexes, but spores lengthened in all directions) he divides into two sections, viz.: 1. Proto-phyta ( first), born without soil, feeding by the surface, fructification vague; containing 2 classes, namely, alga, in 7 orders and 122 genera, and lichenes in 4 orders and 57 genera. 2. Hysterophyta ( posterior, later), born on languid or dead organisms, feeding from within, developing all organs at once, perishing definitively; constituting 1 class, fungi; birth hidden; sporidia none or within asci (tubules); in 5 orders, 274 genera. In this region there are 16 orders and 453 genera. The cormophyta (having polar opposition of stem to root, vessels and distinct sexes in the more perfect individuals) he divides into 8 sections. The first section is acrobrya ( uppermost, highest, extreme, and . ' , I germinate, emanate, am bred): stem growing only at the top, lower part only food-bearing; comprising 8 cohorts, namely: 1. Anophyta ( upward): no vessels; hermaphrodite; spores free within sporangia; with 2 classes, hepaticai, in 5 orders and 20 genera, and musci, in 8 orders and 26 genera; 2. Protophyta: bundles of vessels more or less perfect; no male sex; spores free within sporangia of one or more lodges; 5 classes; a, equiseta (horsetails), in 1 order, 2 genera; b,filices '(ferns), 7 orders, 72 genera; c, hydropterides (water-wings), in 2 orders, 29 genera; d,selagines, in 3 orders, 11 genera; e. samiw, 1 order, cycadaceae, 10 genera; 3. Hysterophyta: both sexes perfect; seeds without embryo, many-spored; parasites, with 1 class, rhizanthoaz (root-flowering), in 3 orders and 14 genera. The second section is amphi-brya: stalk growing peripherically; with 11 classes, viz.: a, plumacece, in 2 orders, graminece, grasses, 229 genera, and cyperacea, sedges. 47 genera; b, enantioblastce ( against, germ), in 5 orders, 33 genera; c, heliobice ( pool, marsh, life), in 2 orders, 10 genera; d, coronariae (from the coronate perigonium), in 6 orders, 42 genera; e, artorhizae ( bread, root), in 2 orders, 17 genera;f, ensatae (Lat. ensis, sword), in 7 orders, 110 genera; g, gynandxce (female with male), in 2 orders, 305 genera; h. scitamineae (Lat. scitamina, dainties), in 3 orders, 38 genera; i,fluviales, in 1 order, naiadeae, 6 genera; j, spadici-floroz, in 3 orders, 51 genera; and k, principes, in 1 order, palmae, 62 genera. The third section is the acramphibrya: stem growing both at top and peripherically; divided into 4 cohorts: 1. Gymnospermm: ovules naked,fertilized immediately through the open fruit leaf or permeable disk, with 1 class, coniferm, in4 orders, 28 genera; 2. Apetalm: no perigonium, or a rudimentary or simple one, calycine or colored, free or adhering to the ovary; with 6 elasses: a, piperita), in 3 orders, 23 genera; 6, acquaticae, in 3 orders, 10 genera; c, juliflorae (Lat. iulus, catkin), in 15 orders and 1 suborder, 72 genera; d, oleraceai (Lat. olus, a kitchen plant), in 4 orders, 60 genera; e, thymelece ( altar, flour), in 9 orders, 146 genera; f, serpentarioi, in 2 orders, 8 genera; 3. Gamopetaloz: perigonium double exterior calycine, interior corolline, gamopetalic, seldom abortive; with 10 classes: a,plumbagines (Lat.plumb-urn, a disorder in the eyes, which some species were believed to cure), in 2 orders, 10 genera; b. aggregates, in 3 orders, 859 genera; c, campanulineoe,m 5 orders, 59 genera; d, caprifolia (from climbing like a goat, Lat. capra), in 2 orders, 246 genera; e, eontortm (twisted), in 7 orders. 227 genera; f, nuculiferae, in 8 orders, 219 genera; g, tubuliflorae, in 5 orders, 90 genera; h,personatae (masked), in 7 orders, 318 genera; i,petalan-thae, in 4 orders, 70 genera; j, bicornes, in 2 orders, 89 genera; 4. Dialypetalm ( to dissolve, separate): perigonium double, outer calycine (with leaflets distinct or coalesced, free or cognate with ovary, sometimes colored), inner corolline (parts distinct or seldom united by base of stamens, hypo-, peri-, or epigynous), sometimes abortive; with 23 classes, viz.: a, discanthae (disk-flowering), in 7 orders, 252 genera; 6, corniculatae, in 3 orders, 77 genera; c, polycarpicae (many-fruited), in 8 orders, 132 genera; d, rhoeadece ( , pomegranate, here misapplied), in 5 orders, 201 genera; e, nelum-bia (Cingalese, nelumbo, water lily), in 3 orders and 1 suborder, 10 genera;f, parietales, in 13 orders, 94 genera; g, peponiferoz, in 3 orders, 33 genera; h, opuntice, in 1 order, cacteai, 9 genera; i, caryophillinece ( walnut, and , leaf, from the appearance of the flower buds of pinks), in 4 orders, 103 genera; j, columniferae,, in 4 orders, 126 genera; k, guttifero2,in 9 orders, 93 genera; I, hespe-rides (rockets, more fragrant in the evening, , in 5 orders, 73 genera; m, acera (maples), in 5 orders, 86 genera; n, polygalineai ( milk, believed to favor milk secretion when fed upon), in 2 orders, 16 genera; o, frangulaceo2, in 7 orders, 100 genera; p, tricoccm, in 3 orders, 129 genera; q, terebinthineai, in 10 orders, 156 genera; r, gruinales (like cranebills), in 6 orders, 22 genera; s, valy-ciftoraz, in 8 orders. 102 genera; t, myrtifioro3, in 2 orders, 172 genera; u, rosiflorae,in 5 orders, 77 genera; v,legumi-nosae, in 3 orders, 421 genera.

The Genera Plantarum of Hooker and Ben-tham, of which the first volume was completed in 1867, is the latest arrangement of orders and genera, and when finished will doubtless be for some time the guide in the classification of herbaria and local floras. - Physiological and Anatomical Botany. After the discovery of the microscope and the investigations of Grew and Malpighi, much study was devoted to the vegetable cell and the nature of cellulose. Mirbel, Dutrochet, Amici, Moldenhawer, Von Mohl, Unger, Fremy, and Schleiden have carefully observed the forms it assumes and the work it performs, Fremy distinguishing various kinds by chemical tests where optical tests felled. Schleiden calls the primitive utricle the cytoblast or germinating cavity; and Mulder in Holland and Schacht in Germany now lead those who consider all vegetation traceable from the cell-generating cytoblast. Pringsheim denies this. The movement of the sap was described by Corti in 1772, and Biot, De la Place, Fontana, L. C. Trevi-ranus, Meyen, Cassini, Schultz, and Morren have published their observations on the circulation.

The observers whose works may be consulted with profit for special phytotomic details are: on organic mucus, Brongniart, Mohl, Valentin; laticiferous tissue, Schultz (1839), Dippel, Hanstein (1863); protoplasm, Oohn, Unger, Max Schultze, K. H. Schultz; fibrous tissue, Purkinje, Morren; starch, Raspail, Fritz-sche, Payen, Trecul, Nageli; aleurone, Hartig, Trecul, Gris; color of plants, De Candolle, Mohl, Lawson, Morren; chlorophyl, Bohm, Mohl, Morren, Fremy, Gris, Verdeil; cell contents, Weddell, Schacht; epidermis, Schleiden, Brongniart, Weiss; stomata, the Krokers, father and son, Thomson, Lindley, Unger, Morren; bark and cork, Duhamel (Physique des arbres), Senebier, Pallini, Sprengel, Gaudichaud; stem, Daubenton, Desfontaines, Duhamel, Mohl, Gaudichaud, Mirbel, T. Hanstein (also on root and leaves); root, Trecul, Goldman, Link, Gar-reau and Brauvvers, Decaisne, Ohlert, Th. de Saussure, Macaire, Bouchardat, Chatin, Trinchi-netti; leaf, J. D. Hooker, Braun, J. Rossmann, Steinheil, Mercklin, Wretschko, Trecul, Bonnet; movements of plants, Runge, Desfontaines, Meyen, Briicke, Darwin; phyllotaxy, Schim-per and Brown; floral organs, Duval, Duchartre; anther, Purkinje, Fritzsche; pollen, Chatin, Winimel, Nageli, Hofmeister, R. Brown, Schlei-den, Unger; ovary and ovule, Brongniart, Duchartre, Cramer, Grisebach, Tulasne, Deeke, Schacht, Henfrey, Radtkofer,Hofmeister; fruits, Lindley, Lestiboudois, Desvaux, De Candolle, Dumortier; vitality of seeds, De Candolle, Des-moulins, Girardin, Naudin; alimentation of plants, Dutrochet, Schumacher, Herbert Spencer, Hofmeister, Bohm, Hanstein, Hartig, Sachs, Payen, Vogel, Wittwer, Vierordt, Jac. Moleschott, Daubeny, Draper, Boussingault, Liebig, Grischow; respiration, Traube, Core-muinder, De Saussure, Gladstone. Of vegetable products: the proportions of the amylaceous bodies in plants (cellular tissue, inuline, dextrine, mannite, pectine, etc.) have been investigated by Berard, Peligot, Braconnot, Eichof, Payen, and Pereira; oily substances, by Hartig, Mulder, Donders, Iljenko and Laskow-sky, Playfair, Gorgey, and Dumas; wax, by Brodie. The diseases of plants have been studied by Focke, Mtinter, Hartig (potato disease), Von Mohl (grape disease, 1852), and Liebig. Economic botany has been treated by Fee, Geiger, Reissech, Royle, Richard, Pereira, Endlicher, Nees von Esenbeck, Martius, Gui-bourt, and Schacht. Various classes of plants have received special attention from the following botanists: Cryptogams in general, Agardh, Persoon, Berkeley, Ehrenberg, Kutzing, De-caisne, Thuret, Derbis, Nageli, Cohn, Greville; algae, Harvey, Johnstone, and Croal; fungi, Berkeley, Montague, Cordier, Tulasne, Kromb-holz, Sturm, Benerden, Badham, Cooke, Pringsheim; mosses, Hedwig, Sullivant; lichens, Tuckerman, G. von Holle, Leighton, Spier-schneider, J. D. W. Bayerhofer; ferns, W. J. and J. D. Hooker, Moore, Eaton, Lowe, Baker; grasses, Munro, Kunth, Gray; palms, Martius, Seemann; liliaceae, Redoute; conifers, Lambert, Richard; orchids, Bateman, Blume, Hooker, Moore, Darwin; cactacese, Engelmann; pipera-ceae, Miquel; labiates, Bentham; rhododendrons, Hooker; geraniacese, Sweet, Andrews; heaths, Andrews. Local floras have been published as follows: United States, Gray, Torrey, Chapman, Brewer, Watson; Brazil, Martius, Saint-Hilaire and Jussieu, Humboldt, and Bon-pland; Peru, Ruiz and Pavon; Chili, Bertero, Gay; Guiana, Schomburgk; West Indies, Grisebach, Wright, Larran, Descourtiles, Sloane; Antarctic, Hooker and Harvey; Pacific, Gray, Gau-dichaud; Hawaiian Islands, H. Mann; Feejee and Samoan Islands, Seemann; New Zealand, Hooker; Australia, Hooker, Muller, Sweet, Bentham; Philippine Islands, Blanco; Hong Kong, Bentham; China, Loureiro, Hance; Japan, Thunberg, Siebold; Siberia, Gmelin, Maximovitch; India, Wight, Roxburgh, Wal-lich, Hooker, and Thompson; Java, Blume; Ceylon, Thwaites; Arabia, Forskal; Greece, Sibthorp; Italy, Gussone, Tenore, Bertoloni; Austria, Jacquin, Kock, Reichenbach; France, Saint-Hilaire; Russia, Pallas; Lapland, Linnaeus; Sweden, Andersen; Denmark, Oeder; England, Curtis, Smith, Hooker, Bromfield, Sowerby, Greville, Bentham, Thornton, Bab-ington; Africa, Desfontaines, Hooker, Palisot de Beauvois, Harvey, Oliver. We give below an alphabetical list of the principal authors, native and foreign, who have applied themselves to the botany of the United States and of British America: William Baldwin assisted Elliott in the sketch of the botany of South Carolina and Georgia.

Benjamin 8. Barton, professor of botany in Philadelphia, " Collections for an Essay toward a Materia Medica of the United States," 1798-1804; " Fragments of the Natural History of Pennsylvania," fol., 1799; " Progress of Vegetation," 1791; " Elements of Botany," revised, and with additions of British examples, etc, London, 1804; Flora Virginica (reaching only to the tetrandria of Linnaeus, but an enlarged and modified edition of the work of Clayton and Gronovius), Philadelphia, 1812; "Specimen of a Geographic View of Trees," etc, of North America between lat. 71° and 75° (incomplete).

L. C. Beck contributed toward the botany of Illinois and Missouri (not beyond the monadelphia of Linnaeus); "Botany of the United States north of Virginia," 1833; 2d ed., 1848.

Jacob Bigelow, Morula Bostoniensis, 1814, '24, '40; "American Medical Botany," 1817-21, 3 vols., 60 colored plates; " On the Forwardness of Spring in different parts of the United States," 1818.

J. A. Brereton, Prodromw Flora, Columbiana) (of Washington), 1830.

W. H. Brewer, "Botany of the California Geological Survey," 1878.

Brown, " List of Plants collected on the Coast of Baffin's and Possession Bay," London, 1819; Chloris Melvilliana, 1823.

Mark Catesby, "Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahamas," 2 vols, fol., 1743; also Hortus Britanniaa Americanm, treating of trees fit for England (also under the title of Hortus Europae Americanus), 1763-,7.

Chapman, "Botany of the Southern United. States".

J. Cornutus, a French physician, published a Canadensium Plantarum Ilistoria, Paris, 1635.

M. Cutler wrote an account of the vegetable productions of New England, 1785, probably the first essay of a scientific description.

J. Darby wrote on the vegetable productions of the southern States, and (1841) a "Manual of Botany".

W. Darlington, "Essay on the Development of the External Forms of Plants," compiled from Goethe, 1839; on graminem, as important to man; a Florida, 1826, and a Flora Cestrica (of West Chester, Pa.), 1837; on "Agricul-cultural Botany," and " Memorials of J. Bartram, H. Marshall," etc, Philadelphia, 1849.

Dewey, on caricography, "Silliman's Journal," vol. vii.

A. Eaton's " Manual of Botany for North America," on the system of Linnaeus, 1st ed. in 1818, 8th in 1840 (in the last edition Wright cooperated), and some elementary books, marked an epoch in the progress of the science in this country.

A. Elliott issued in numbers (1816-'24) a valuable " Sketch of the Botany of South Carolina and Georgia".

G. B. Emerson, on "Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts," 1846.

G. Engelmann wrote on Cytinem in 1842, and with A. Gray on Lindheimer's Texan plants, 1845.

A Florula Columbiensis appeared at Washington in 1819, anonymously.

J. K. Forster, Flora America; Septentrionalis, 1771 (also in Bossu's travels, vol. viii.).

A. Gray, an eminent botanist of the United States; elementary books, monographs of American Bhynchospora;, a revision of Melanthaceai, remarks on Ceratophyllaceai; has catalogued American Gramina and Cyperacece; reviewed J. Dumas, J. B. Boussingault, Johnston, and Draper, on the Chemistry of Vegetation; notes on the mountains of North Carolina; notices on Eafinesque, and on European herbaria; Chloris Boreali-Americana, illustrating rare plants; also a complete "Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States," 5th ed., 1868; " Introduction to Structural and Systematic Botany and Vegetable Physiology," 1858; " Field, Forest, and Garden Botany," 1869; began in 1849 his great work, Genera Florae Americana; Borealis illustrata, which is to be in 10 vols. Many of his short works have been published in American literary periodicals. He was associated with G. Engelmann in a work on Lindheimer's plants of Texas; with W. S. Sullivant, who wrote on the mosses and liverworts of the United States east of the Mississippi; with J. Torrey, in the " Flora of North America," an abridged description of indigenous and naturalized plants north of Mexico, 2 vols., 1838-'48.

Jo. Fr. Gronovius published Flora Virginica, Leyden, 1739-43; 2d ed., 1762, by his son. augmented with the observations of-Clayton, Colden, Mitchell, Kalm, etc.

W. Jackson Hooker, one of the best European botanists, published lists of plants on the E. coast of Greenland, 1823; an account of a collection of Arctic plants by Edw. Sabine, 1824; with Walker-Arnott, the botany of Capt. Beechey's voyage to the Pacific and Behring strait, 1841; a Flora Boreali-Americana, 2 vols. 4to, 1829-40, 238 plates (including Texas). His agents were Douglas, Drummond. Richardson, and others.

Andre Michaux, Histoire des chines de l'Ameriqne, published by his son Francois Andre, Paris, 1801, with 30 plates by the renowned P. J. Redouta. The son published, moreover, Voyage d Fouesl des monts Alleg/utnys et retour a Charleston par les kautes Carolines, etc, Paris. 1804; Memoires sur la naturalisation des arbresforestiers de l'Amerique Septentrionale, etc, 1805; Notices sur les ties Bermudes, 1806; Histoire des arbres forestiers de l'Amerique Septentrionale (discussing their uses in arts, commerce, &c), 3 vols. 4to, with 145 plates, 18l0-'l3; and in connection with C. L. Richard, & Flora Boreah-Americana, containing the discoveries of his father, with 51 plates, 1803, republished with a mere change of title in 1820. An English epitome of the " Oaks," 1810-12, containing 26 black plates; and the imitation under the name of the "North American Sylva, or Forest Trees of the United States, Canada, and Nova Scotia," 150 colored engravings, 4 vols., Paris, 1817-13; 2d edition at New Harmony, Ind., 3 vols., 1840. An edition was printed at Paris for Philadelphia. (See Nuttall for the supplement).

H. Muhlenberg of Lancaster, Pa., catalogued the plants of that region, described Gramina and plantas calamarias of North America, 1817; his works were partly republished by his son.

Thomas Nuttall published "Genera of North American Plants, and a Catalogue of Species," 2 vols., 1817-18; a description of new species and genera of composite?, collected on a voyage across the continent, tn Oregon. Upper California, and on the Hawaiian isles, in 1834-'5 (" Transact. Amer. Philos. Soc." 1841); and a supplement to F. A. Michaux's "North American Sylva," with additions of the trees observed in the Rocky mountains, Oregon, on the shores of the Pacific, etc, Philadelphia, 1742, with 122 colored plates; besides the works noticed elsewhere.

Fr. Traugott PuR3cn (anglicized Pursh), Flora Americce Septentrionalis. 2 vols., London, 1814-16; a good work.

De La Pylaie, Flore de File de Terre-neuve, Paris, 1829.

C. S. Rafinesque-Schmaltz published Neogenyton (describing 66 new genera of North American plants); a "Medical Flora of the United States," with more than 100 figures; the " Herbarium;" and the " New Flora and Botany of North America," supplemental to all American botanical works, as well as those of the great European botanists, etc.

Richardson, "Botanical Appendix to Sir J. Franklin's Narrative of a Journey on the Shores of Hudson's Bay and the Polar Sea".

J. L. Riddell, "Synopsis of the Flora of the Western States," 1S35.

L. D. von Schweinitz, of Bethlehem, Pa., wrote, besides what is noticed elsewhere, a monograph of the American viola, and of the species of carices, and a synopsis of native fungi; a "Narrative of the Expedition "to the Source of St. Peter's river, to Lake Winnepeck," etc, London, 1823, Specimen Floras Americce Septentrionalis Cryptoga-micce, Raleigh. 1S21.

J. L. E. W. Shecut, Flora Carolinensis, etc., collected or compiled, 2 vols., Charleston, 1806.

C. W. Short, Florida Lexingtoniensis, 1830, a supplemental catalogue of the phanerogamous plants and ferns of Kentucky. He sent many plants and seeds to the Atlantic states and to Europe.

W. S. Sullivant and L. Lesquereux, several works on the mosses of North America, 1845-'64.

John Torrey published, besides other works, a " Flora of the Northern and Middle States" (not beyond the ico-sandria of Linnaeus), 2 vols., 1824; a catalogue of the North American genera, according to Lindley's "Introduction," 1831; a monograph of the North American Cy-peraceie; a "Flora of the State of New York, with a full Description of all indigenous and naturalized Plants. Remarks on Economy and Medicine." Albany, 1843-'4 (in the 3d part of the "Natural History of New York," 1839), with 161 colored plates; Icones ineditae ad Floram Phila-delpliice illustrandam, 130 colored plates. Some of Torrev's writings are found in the American scientific periodicals.

Edward Tuckerman arranged the carices, 1843, and gave a synopsis of the lichens of the Northern States and British America, 1848.

S. Watson and others, " Botany of the 40th Parallel Exploring Expedition," 4to, 1872.

We add a list, in chronological order, of catalogues of the plants of various regions of America:

John Banister, in Virginia, 1680 (in Raji Hist. Plantar. II. parte, London, 1688). David Hosack, Hort. Elginensis, 1801-11. C. W. Eddy, Plant e Plandomenses (around J. L. Mitchell's country seat), 1807. J. Le Conte, on the island of New York, 1811. H. Muhlenberg, Catal. Plantar. Amer. Sept., 1813-18. J. Torrey, of plants within 30 miles of New York city, 1819. C. S. Rafinesque, of the botanical garden of the university of Transylvania, 1824. L. D. von Schweinitz, of plants collected in the Northwest territory (in the narrative of the expedition). London. 1825. J. Torrey, account of a collection of plants from the Rocky mountains, etc, 1827.

E. Hitchcock, of the vicinity of Amherst college, 1829, and of Massachusetts, 1835.

H. H. Eaton, a few specimens from near Troy, 1S32.

H. B. Croom and Loomis, of the neighborhood of Newbern, N. C, 1838. J. Bachman, about Charleston, S. C, 1834. T. Nuttall, collection toward a flora of Arkansas, 1834. M. A. Curtis, about Wilmington, N. C, 1834. L. R. Gibbes, phanerogamous plants about Columbia, S. C, 1885. Dr. Aiktn, about Baltimore, 1836. J. L. Riddell, supplementary catalogue of plants of Ohio, 1836. J. A. Lapham, near Milwaukee, 1838. W. S. Sullivant, about Columbus, O., 1840. Dewey's report on plants of Massachusetts, 1840. S. T. Olney, Rhode Island plants, 1S44. Botanical Society of Wilmington, Del., plants of New Castle co., 1844. S. F. Baird, contributions toward a catalogue of trees and shrubs of Cumberland co.. Pa.. 1845. A. W. Chapman, a list of plants about Quincy, Fla., 1845.

F. B. Hough, plants in Lewis co., O., 1845.

H. P. Sartwell, of Western New York, 1S45. Horace Mann, phsenogamous and vascular cryptogamous plants of North America north of Mexico, 1863.

The following writers, in addition to those already named, may be consulted by the student:

English

J. C. Loudon, author of 14 valuable works, from 1804 to 1841; and Mrs. J. W. Loudon, author of several popular ones, especially for. ladies, 1640-'57.

Sir J. Paxton. "Magazine of Botany," 8 vols., 1834-"43, with 500 tables, and (assisted by J. Lindley) a pocket botanical dictionary, 1853.

John Lindley (besides the greater works mentioned above), "Outlines of the First Principles of Botany," 1S30; "Key to Structural, Physiological, and Systematic Botanv," 1835; "Ladies" Botany," 1837; "Introduction to Botany," 3d edition, 1889; "Elements of Botany," 1841.

John Smith, " Domestic Botany," 12mo, London, 1871.

French

Brisseau-Mirbel, Analyse des plantes.

De Candolle, Thiorie elementaire de la botanique, edit. 3. par Alphonse de Candolle, 1844.

Adrien de Jussieu. Elements de botanique, 1845; translated into English by J. H. Wilson, 1849.

Lebouidre-Delalande, Traite elementaire de physiologic vegetale, 1845.

Richard, Nowveqrtx elements de botanique, 7th ed., 1846.

P. Duchartre, Elements de botanique, 1867.

Le Maout et Decaisne, 1868.

German

Endlicher and Unger, Grundeuge der Botanik, 1S43.

N. J. de Jacquin, Einleitung, 1785-1800; revised by his son, 1840. K. S. Kunth, Lehrbuch, 1847. C. G. Nees von Esenbeck, Handbuch, 1820. Pfeiffer, Synonymia Botanica, 1871.

G. A. Pkitzell, Iconum Bot. Index locupletissimus, containing' a list of all botanical works of the 18th and 19th centuries, 1855.

M. Schleiden, Grundzuge, 1845-,6; Grundriss, 1846; Die Pflanze, 1847.

K. Sprengel, Geschiehte der Botanik, 1817-18.

Steudel, Nomenclator Botanicus, 2 vols., 2d ed., 1840.

Fr. Ungee, Grundziige der Anatomie und Physiologie der Pflanzen, 1843.

K. L. Willdenow, Grundrisse der Kruuterkxmde, 7th ed., 1831.

Botany #1

Botany, a parish and township in the electoral district of Canterbury, Cumberland county, New South Wales, on Cook's river and on Botany bay, 5 m. S. of Sydney; pop. about 700. It is one of the most popular resorts of excursionists from Sydney on account of its beautiful scenery. It contains the Sydney water works, occupying an area of 30 acres, and weekly supplying that city with about 18,000,000 gallons of water. There are five places of worship, a temperance hall, and a post office. The principal industry is market gardening. It is an agricultural district, though the surrounding country consists of swamps and sand hills, with but occasional patches of fine alluvial soil.