Ginsfppe Mazzini, an Italian revolutionist, born in Genoa, June 28, 1805, died in Pisa. March 10, 1872. His father, who was a rich medical professor in the university of Genoa, gave him an excellent education. He learned the German, French, and English languages, studied jurisprudence, and before 1830 published several liberal essays in the Indira-tore of Genoa and the Antologia of Florence. In 1830 he joined the carbonari, and soon afterward was imprisoned six months in the citadel of Savona, and then expatriated. lie went to Marseilles, at that time the headquarters of Italian exiles, where he organized a league called la Giovine Italia, or Young Italy, and established a journal of the same name. Among the most active emissaries of Young Italy were sailors, who scattered Mazzini's publications all over the peninsula. The movement soon attracted the attention of the authorities. A private correspondence in cipher was intercepted, and disclosed the purpose of raising guerilla bands, and other preparations for revolution. Extracts of this correspondence were published in the latter part of 1832 in the Roman journal Notizie del Gior-no, and traced to Mazzini and his fellow conspirators.

A circular inviting the cooperation of republican leaders in foreign countries was addressed, in February, 1833, to a journalist of Paris, and was signed Strozzi, the nom de guerre of Mazzini. His name was associated with political and military conspiracies which were discovered in Piedmont in 1833, and with their ramifications in Naples and other parts of Italy. After continuing for some time to issue his journal from a hiding place in Marseilles, he was at length compelled to leave the French territory and to seek refuge in Switzerland, where, in connection with Polish, German, and other Italian refugees, he planned an expedition to seize the fortress of St. Julien in Savoy, and the small town of Annecy, which commanded the road to Chambery, while another wing of the revolutionists, under Ra-morino, was to advance from Les fichelles to unite at Chambery, and to organize from that place military operations against Piedmont, The attack was made Feb. 1, 1834, at the frontier of Savoy, upon a few custom-house officers; the custom house was destroyed, and the insurgents advanced to the village of Anne-masse, where a proclamation signed by Maz-zini, Melegari, and Jacopo Kuffini, announced the formation of a provisional government at St. Julien; but it had no effect except to afford opportunities of smuggling during the confusion.

The enterprise failed entirely. Sentence of death in contumaciam was passed by the Sardinian courts upon Mazzini, who however remained unmolested in Switzerland. Many of those implicated in the Savoy expedition were expelled from Switzerland, particularly the Polish refugees. But before their departure Mazzini obtained the cooperation of the principal representatives of the various nationalities in the organization of a new association to be called Young Europe. "Young Italy," "Young Poland," etc, appointed delegates, who on April 15, 1834, solemnly agreed to abide by the political, social, and religious platform which was laid down by Mazzini. The main object of Young Europe, according to Mazzini, was to lay the foundation for a universal development of thought and action, which would lead to the discovery and practical application of the divine laws of human government. Mazzini defined the league as the young Europe of the people, which was to supplant the old Europe of kings; as a conflict between the modern principles of freedom and the mediaeval system of servitude, between the modern sentiments of equality and the old spirit of caste, monopoly, and privileges; and as a triumph of new religious aspirations and id eas over a decaying ecclesiasticism.

The social application of Mazzini's principles is fully explained in his work, Fox et axenir (Bienne, 1835). Dissensions between Mazzini and the "Young Switzerland" (in whose interest a journal of that name had been published at Bienne chiefly under his influence) and " Young Germany" parties led him to withdraw from the central committee of Young Europe, and also of the Young Italy league, but without relaxing his zeal for the furtherance of the ends of both of these associations, of which he continued the principal leader. With the exception of a brief term of arrest in 1835, Mazzini was not interrupted in his agitation in Switzerland till 1837, when the Swiss authorities requested him to leave, and he went to London. His numerous partisans and friends continued the secret political agitation of Italy, while Mazzini labored by writing and by public addresses in the meetings off the Poles, Italians, or other oppressed nationalities in London. He wrote articles for various periodicals, among which are papers on Byron and Goethe, George Sand, Victor Hugo and Lamartine, Thiers and Oarlyle, on Fourierism and communism, and on Italian and German music.

Besides publications, in journals and in pamphlets, on the political condition of Italy and other European states, he wrote in behalf of a comprehensive system of popular education, in the Italian journal Apostolato Popolare, which be published in London from 1840 to 1843. In 1842 he wrote a preface to a new edition of Dante's Divina Commedia, and prepared a complete edition of the works of Ugo Foscolo. He founded in London in 1840 a Sunday school for poor Italian children, and officiated as one of the teachers. - The tragic fate of the brothers Bandiera called public attention to Mazzini in 1844, he being considered as the inspiring spirit who had led those men to make the daring attempt upon the Austrian fleet which cost them their lives, although Mazzini had in reality opposed that particular movement. At the same time the English home secretary, Sir James Graham, was detected in having intercepted and opened letters addressed to Mazzini, which led to the discovery and suppression of the Bandiera conspiracy. There was a general cry of indignation against this violation of the post office, and the proceedings which the despotic powers wished the English government to institute against the Italian refugees fell to the ground.

After protesting in 1846 against the enlistment of Swiss soldiers for the papal army, and against the annihilation of the republic of Cracow, he founded in 1847 an "international league of peoples," the principal object of which was to enlighten the people of England upon foreign politics, and to diffuse principles of self-government among the nations of Europe. At the end of 1847 he went to Paris to confer with other leaders in regard to the growing revolutionary feeling in Italy, but soon returned to London, where the revolution of February, 1848, took him by surprise. He returned at once to Paris, where he had an interview with Gioberti, Mamiani, and other leaders of the constitutional party. Mazzini was opposed to the annexation of the smaller Italian states to Sardinia, which was eventually proposed by the others. In March he issued an address to the people of Lombardy, congratulating them upon the success of their revolution, and soon returned to Italy, after an exile of 17 years. But his exertions in behalf of national independence were neutralized by the vacillating rival policy of Charles Albert, who had begun his campaign against the Austrians. After being foiled in Milan, and endeavoring in vain to raise the standard of revolution in other parts of Italy, Mazzini offered to enlist as a common soldier under Garibaldi, whose vanguard was on the point of advancing from Monza to Bergamo, when the capitulation of Milan to the Austrians (Aug. 5) led to the dis-bandment of the patriots, and Mazzini took refuge in Switzerland. Shortly after his arrival there, the news of the rising in Tuscany was received, together with the continued resistance of Venice, which from the beginning had acted in accordance with his republican views under the lead of Manin, and encouraged him to proceed to Florence. Here he became a member of the provisional government, and was sent as deputy to the Roman republic, which had been proclaimed in February, 1849. He was elected a triumvir by the Romans, and became the ruling spirit of the republic, which was soon suppressed by French intervention.

Maz-zini went to Lausanne, where he continued the journal V Italia del Popolo, which he had commenced at Milan. He remained for some time in Switzerland, organizing there a new national committee for continuing his agitations. Returning to London, he united his efforts with those of Ledru-Rollin, Kossuth, Arnold Ruge, and other revolutionary leaders. His name was associated with the dagger insurrection in Milan (Feb. 6, 1853), started by young enthusiasts who were led on by the inflammatory zeal of Mazzini, and promptly suppressed by the Austrian government. Orsini, formerly one of his most active partisans, in his memoirs published at Edinburgh in 1857, reproached Mazzini with recklessness and disregard of the lives of his friends. The latter, however, persisted in his propagandism; and notwithstanding the disapprobation of Manin and of other republican leaders, he again instigated an insurrection in Sardinia in 1857, and went to Genoa to superintend it. His followers seized Fort Diamante in the night of June 29; but as the people did not join the movement, Mazzini was compelled to abandon the enterprise.

His friends who attempted similar outbreaks at Leghorn and Naples fell into the hands of the government, including those captured on board the steamer Cagliari, and were put to death or imprisoned, while Mazzini himself retired to his place of concealment near Geneva, and afterward returned to London, where he published " The late Insurrection defended by Joseph Mazzini" (1858). In January, 1858, his name was unjustly associated with Orsini's in the attempt to assassinate Napoleon III. At the end of that year he established in London a weekly journal, entitled Pensiero ed Azione. During the war of 1859 in Lombardy, he constantly resisted the idea that Italy could be benefited by the intervention of Napoleon III.; but he was warmly interested in the subsequent efforts to unify Italy, though he wanted it to be republican as well as united. In September, 1862, he published a manifesto to the people of Italy. In 1865 he was elected to the Italian parliament, but his election was annulled. After 1870 he resided principally at Genoa and Pisa. He was buried at Genoa, and it was estimated that 80,000 people witnessed his funeral.

In addition to his literary works above noticed, he published L'Italic, VAutriche et le pape (English ed., London, 1845); Le papeau XIXe siecle (Paris, 1850); "Royalty and Re-publicanism in Italy" (London, 1850) translated into French with a preface by George Sand; "The War and the Commune" (1871), and other pamphlets. There are editions of his works in Italian (12 vols., Milan, 1861 et seq.) and English, "Life and Writings of Mazzini" (6 vols., London, 1864-'70). - See Maa-zmijuge par lui-meme et par les Hens, by Jules de Breval (Paris, 1853; translated into English); his "Life" by Simoni (1870); and "Joseph Mazzini, a Memoir," by E. H. V., with two essays by Mazzini (London, 1874).