Definition

The term "sanitary fittings" is generally taken to include all fittings intended for the reception of the foul liquids and water-carried solids which are produced in and about our buildings, exclusive of trade processes. The term, therefore, excludes such fittings as dyers' and sizers' vats and other tanks employed in factories and workshops, and is confined to sinks, wash-tubs, baths, lavatories, water-closets, slop-hoppers and sinks, and urinals. Of each class of fitting there are many varieties, which are adapted for different purposes and for different kinds of buildings. The principal varieties will be considered in subsequent chapters. At present it is our purpose to state a few general rules which ought to be applied in the selection of sanitary fittings of all kinds. These rules may be summed up in five words-efficiency, cleanliness, durability, simplicity, and (within limits) economy.

Efficiency

That a sanitary fitting should adequately serve the purpose for which it is intended is obvious, but thousands of fittings are still fixed every year which cannot by any stretch of imagination be regarded as efficient. There are lavatories with waste holes so small that they cannot be rapidly emptied, with overflows badly arranged, with drains from soap-dishes made only to be choked, and with the "clean" water arranged to enter through the more or less foul waste or overflow openings. Baths exhibit almost the same defects.

There are "water-closets" without water, or so insufficiently flushed that the thorough removal of the solids is impossible. Others are so constructed that they hold very little water, or none at all, for the reception and deodorisation of deposits, And there are unflushed urinals and slop-hoppcri All these perhaps serve in a manner the purpose for which they were designed, but they do not serve it efficiently, and every fitting of this sort is therefore imperfect. One of the principal marks of efficiency in a sanitary fitting is thai it shall form an effective harrier against the entrance of foul air from the drains and waste pipes, In some fittings, as, tor example, lavatories and sinks, this harrier is a plumber's trap which does not form an integral part of the lining itself, hut in many water-closets and slop hoppers, the trap is part of the fitting, and its efficiency must he carefully considered. Water-closets are often defective in this respect; the water-seal of the trap is, perhaps, too small, and is therefore in danger of being removed by siphonagc or evaporation. Or the trap may have no provision for ventilation,a defect which will render it unsuitable tor fixing in series.

Cleanliness

Cleanliness is a question both of design and material. One of the best materials for sanitary fittings is undoubtedly some kind of porcelain, either solid or applied in the form of an enamel. It has its disadvantages of course, if applied as an enamel it may chip off and expose the rougher porous foundation to the action of the foul water, and if solid it may (as in a lavatory basin) be cracked by a blow or by sudden contact with hot water,-but it has the great advantage of cleanliness. It is impervious, and consequently can always be kept clean, if the fitting is so designed that every part is accessible. Foul matters will, however, adhere to porcelain as to every other substance, and these must be periodically removed if the fitting is to remain satisfactory. Careful design is therefore necessary. All internal angles ought to be well rounded, and as far as possible every part of the fitting ought to be accessible to the brush or cloth. The overflows of sinks and lavatories have, until recently, been very defective in this respect; no provision whatever was made for cleansing them, and the consequence was that they often became extremely dirty, and were sometimes quite choked with soapy and greasy matter.

Many water-closets still in use are of such a form that they cannot possibly be kept clean by ordinary flushing. The containers of pan-closets are almost invariably coated with filth, and some closets of more recent design are very little better, The traps of wash-out closets are always fouled by usage, and many wash-down closets have such a small area of standing water that the basin is soiled every time the closet is used,

The nature of the flush is often accountable for the uncleanliness of water-closets, urinal*, and slop-sinks. The water may be insufficient in quantity, or may be delivered in such a small volume, and at such a low rate of velocity, as to be almost useless for cleansing the basins and traps. In many old closets the water is delivered through a fan-spreader, which cannot possibly distribute it over the whole surface of the basin.

The enclosure of sanitary fittings with wooden casings is fortunately now almost a thing of the past, but it is well to repeat that such casings are, as a rule, roost objectionable. It is true that in some recent hospitals cupboards have been formed under the sinks for the storage of bed-pans, but in such cases the windows have been continued down to the floor, so that the cupboards are properly lighted, and air-grates have been fixed in the external walls or windows for ventilation. The panels of the doors of such cupboards ought to be fitted with sheets of clear glass, so that any uncleanliness can be easily detected. Where these precautions are taken the objections to enclosed fittings are considerably reduced, but it is certainly best to leave the fittings exposed where-ever possible, as in nearly every case enclosures are difficult to keep clean and sweet. Certainly the ordinary casings of baths and water-closets are most objectionable, as they conceal the plumber's work, and add considerably to the difficulty of inspection and the cost of repairs. When removing the casing of a water-closet it will often be found that the floor within the casing has been covered with sawdust, and that this is sodden with water and filth; the plumber had evidently thought it a wise precaution to provide some material to absorb the leakage from the defective joints which he had made, and so prevent or delay the detection of his carelessness or incapacity. It is a golden rule to insist on all sanitary fittings, and the plumber's work connected with them, being exposed to view, so that everything can be kept thoroughly clean; exposure also ensures sounder and neater work, renders the detection of leaks more easy, and reduces the cost and dirt of repairs.

As woodwork in connection with sanitary fittings is not conducive to cleanliness, the tendency of modern sanitation is to reduce the woodwork to the least possible quantity; hence we have cast-iron roll-top baths without enclosures, iron brackets for supporting lavatories, etc, steel seats for water-closets, porcelain-enamelled drainers for sinks, and other contrivances.

It is a mistake to cover sanitary fittings with elaborate ornamentation, either raised or printed or painted. Certainly the parts which are in contact with foul water, such as the internal surfaces of sinks, water-closets, lavatories, and baths, ought to have the surfaces perfectly white or cream-coloured, so that the slightest deposit of foul matter can be easily seen.

Durability

Durability is the third quality which sanitary fittings ought to possess. Baths are now generally of cast-iron, and experience has proved that it is a fairly satisfactory material for the purpose. Some of the methods of finishing the surface leave, however, something to be desired. Copper and zinc are also used for baths, the former being the more durable. Enamelled fireclay is largely used for baths and other sanitary fittings, and is an excellent material if it is thick enough to resist ordinary blows, and if the enamel is thoroughly adherent to the fireclay body; in cheap fittings the enamel is often defective in this respect, and will chip or flake with the slightest rough usage. Indeed, the enamel is often cracked during the process of burning, and all enamelled fireclay fittings ought to be carefully examined for such defects. Salt-glazed stoneware is less expensive although quite as durable, and is used for the cheaper sinks, water-closets, urinals, etc.

The best fittings of moderate size are made of some kind of pottery or whiteware, suitibly glazed. As the material is more or less brittle, it ought not to be too thin. Many lavatory and water-closet basins are defective in this respect, and are therefore easily cracked. For the tops of lavatories polished marble is a satisfactory and durable material.

Some materials are sufficiently durable, but are unsatisfactory in other respects. Stone, for example, has been much used for sinks, but, on account of its perviousness, it is difficult to keep clean. Even slate, dense though it is, is far from perfect; it has been largely specified for urinals, but the valid objections to the plain polished surface have led to the adoption of various kinds of enamel, none of which, however, is permanently satisfactory-at any rate, for urinals. There is less objection to its use for the tops of lavatories, but even for these fittings some kind of porcelain or enamelled fireclay is better.

Simplicity

Of two sanitary fittings-other things being equal-the simpler ought to be preferred. Elaborate mechanism is out of place in such fittings. The tendency of recent sanitation towards simplicity is nowhere so marked as in the case of water-closets. The pan-closet is universally condemned, and the valve-closet, although its life has been preserved beyond its natural limit by the exertions of one clever writer, is hastening towards oblivion. Simpler fittings have taken their place. The same process can be observed at work, in the case of the overflow and waste arrangements of baths and lavatories, since the first attempts were made to do away with the old plug and chain and the uncleansable overflow. Complicated arrangements are likely to get out of order and increase the difficulty of keeping the apparatus clean, besides being costly to repair.

Economy

Of the last point to be considered, namely, economy, little need be said. In many cases it is one of the most important considerations. Comparatively inexpensive fittings of good quality can now be obtained, but beyond a certain limit economy cannot be safely practised, and the owner of the building ought either to be content to do without the fitting altogether, or to pay for one which is likely to prove reasonably satisfactory.

Safes under Sanitary Fittings are not now fixed as frequently as in former years. When the fittings are badly designed and the plumbing executed by ignorant and careless workmen, safes may be considered necessary in order to prevent damage being done by leaks to the floors and ceilings below, but in such cases the safes are a source of danger, especially if the fittings are enclosed, as leaks may pass unnoticed or unremedied for a long time. The proper course is to use fittings of good design and to fix them in such a manner that safes are unnecessary. If a safe is fixed, it must not be connected to the waste-pipe or soil-pipe, but must be drained by a separate untrapped pipe carried through the nearest wall and terminated by a hinged brass or copper flap to prevent to some extent the ingress of air. Slabs of marble, slightly dished, are sometimes fixed under unenclosed lavatories and other fittings to catch drippings, but these do not require waste-pipes; the drippings can easily be wiped up with a cloth.